An allergic reaction occurs when our immune system reacts to otherwise harmless substances from outside our body. Our immune system has an important role in protecting us from infections. It normally recognizes bacteria, viruses and fungi by reacting to their proteins (antigens), but only under circumstances that present danger to our body such as tissue damage. In the absence of such “danger signals”, foreign proteins are usually recognized as harmless and are tolerated. This process of immune tolerance occurs the first time our immune system comes in contact with these foreign proteins, such as when an infant ingests milk formula or breathes in pollens for the first time. However, if immune tolerance to a particular antigen fails to develop or is lost, the individual then becomes sensitized to this antigen and develops antibodies and specific T cells against it. An antigen that causes allergic sensitization is called an allergen. When the individual is exposed to this allergen again, an allergic reaction occurs.
Allergic symptoms can be caused by different immunological mechanisms. The majority of allergic diseases are caused by either the Type I (or immediate-type) hypersensitivity response, or the Type IV (or delayed-type) hypersensitivity response.
Immediate-type hypersensitivity reactions are caused by antibodies called IgE produced by the immune system against allergens such as pollens, house dust mites, mold spores, animal dander, insect venom, food or drugs. When the patient is exposed to these allergens, the IgE attached to allergy cells called mast cells binds to the allergens and trigger the mast cells to release chemical mediators such as histamine. This leads to swelling, itching, redness, congestion and airway constriction within a matter of minutes. Mast cells are mostly found in the skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract. IgE antibodies are involved in causing nasal and ocular allergy, asthma, insect sting allergy and some types of food allergy and drug allergy.
Delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions are caused by a type of immune cells called T cells. Each T cell specifically recognizes one allergen, and when it is exposed to this allergen, it becomes active and produces chemical mediators that cause inflammation. This type of reaction usually occurs 24 to 72 hours after allergen exposure, and tends to become chronic. Certain types of food and drug allergy, contact dermatitis and atopic dermatitis are caused by this type of reaction.